Situated on the Acropolis of Athens, the Parthenon has undergone quite a journey since its construction. Originally the symbol of Athenian pride and might, it has now evolved into a symbol of ancient Greece. The Parthenon itself is a monumental work of art, and an analysis of the Parthenon would be incomplete without information about its architecture, sculptures, and numerous intricate detail, all which cannot be sufficiently covered in a mere 4 page essay. Rather than focus on the Parthenon as a whole, this essay will focus on the Parthenon frieze, one of the most interesting pieces of the Parthenon. It depicts two processions that begin at the southwest corner of the Parthenon, parading along opposite sides until finally converging at the east end of the building. There are numerous questions regarding the Parthenon frieze, such as why are gods included with mortals and what kind of procession was it?[1]Some of the questions are still unanswered and many of its pieces are missing, but in spite of all that, the frieze is easily one of the most recognizable parts of the Parthenon as well as one of the most influential works of art.

In order to put the Parthenon frieze in scope, one would have to have a general understanding of the Parthenon itself. Construction on a temple dedicated to Arthena Parthenos began at around 490 BC, shortly after the Battle of Marathon. This Pre-Parthenon, as it is often called, was still under construction when the Persians sacked Athens in 480 BC, ultimately destroying the first Parthenon. Following the Persian Wars in the mid-5th Century BC, Athens, the leader of Delian League, became the cultural center of its time. Pericles, the leading Athenian politician of his time, initiated an ambitious project that lasted about 50 years. Among his projects was the Parthenon, which was headed by the sculptor Phidias, who also designed the Parthenon frieze. At the same time, the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates worked on the overall design of the building itself. The funding for the Parthenon came mostly from the treasury of the Delian league, which was moved to Acropolis in 454 BC.[2]

Following the Roman conquest of Athens, the Parthenon was no longer seen as a symbol of Athenian glory. In the 5th Century AD, it was turned into a church. After the Ottoman conquests, it was turned into a mosque. During this time period, Parthenon remained in relatively good condition. In 1687, the Venetians attacked the Ottomans in Athens. At that time, Parthenon was used a gunpowder store and when it took a direct hit from a Venetian mortar, the gunpowder exploded, destroying a large part of the building. The Venetians later plundered the building, destroying much of it. The Parthenon later suffered further damage in 1801 when many of its sculptures and decorations were removed by the Earl of Elgin, the British Ambassador to Constantinople. Since 1975, the Greek government has been restoring Parthenon, though it is unlikely it will ever return to its former glory. However, one can always visit a full scale replica in Nashville, Tennessee.[3]

Based on recorded evidence and Plutarch’s Life of Pericles, it is deduced that Phidias designed the frieze, though his students were mostly the ones who carved it.[4] Little is actually known about Phidias and there is no surviving piece of art that can be definitively traced to him. He was born in Athens at around year 480 BC and trained with some of the most celebrated Athenian sculptors of his time, during which time he was also heavily influenced by the Doric style. When Pericles was in power, he used much of the Delian money to fund artistic endeavors, both giving Phidias an opportunity to thrive and fostering a relationship with the eminent sculptor. It was during this time that Phidias headed the Parthenon and built its most famous statue, the Athena Parthenos. He later went on to design the famed statue of Zeus at Olympia and died shortly afterwards. There are two accounts of his death – one that he died in an Athenian prison and the second that he fled to Elis, built the statue of Zeus, and was later put to death by the Eleans.[5]

Because of the fact that very few works can be definitively attributed to Phidias, little is known about his style. It is known, for one, that he made few of his works in marble and preferred to use bronze instead. It is also known that a lot of his earlier works were created to celebrate the victory at Marathon. His two most famous works are the statues of Zeus and Athena Parthenos. There is very little trace of the statue of Zeus, the only ones being small copies on coins which only a give a general idea. Based on what little evidence historians have to work with, it is also known that the statue was made of Ivory with the robe in gold. Regarding the statue of Athena Parthenos, there are two small Roman copies in marble, neither of which is particularly innovative. There are Roman copies of some of his other works, though one has to keep in mind that these are only copies and may differ greatly from the original. Phidias has been greatly admired by the ancient critics, who praise his ethos, or moral level, of his works.[6]

One of Phidias’s most important works is the Parthenon frieze, a frieze being a wide central section of an entablature that may or may not be decorated with bas-reliefs. The Parthenon one depicts two processions that, as mentioned, start out at the southwest corner, with one going along the south wall and the other going along the west and then north wall. Eventually, both processions meet at the east and entrance of the Parthenon.[7] The first third of the frieze does not actually depict the procession itself, but rather participants getting ready for it. Among the figures shown is a marshal followed by several men and horses. Almost the entirety of the west frieze and about half of the north frieze is made up of very detailed horsemen, in all constituting about 46% of the entire frieze. These horsemen are mostly young and beardless. Continuing along the north wall to the east, four-horse chariots appear with a charioteer and armed passenger, perhaps representing a ceremonial race found in Attica. These chariots are followed by the sacrificial procession, which begins with the elders of Athens. The elders are distinguished by their braided hair and olive branches, which symbolized wisdom. Following the elders, specifically the olive branch carriers called the thallophoroi, are the musicians, composed of aulos players and cithara players. Then come the water carriers and the scapheforoi, men who carried treats to entice the animals to the alter. Since it is known that there are animals, they appear after the scapheforoi with their masters. The animals are composed of bulls and rams, with some of the bulls attempting to escape, obviously not enticed by the treats. The south wall is paralleled by the north wall. Going from the west to the east, the south frieze begins with horsemen, followed by chariots, thalloforoi, musicians, scapheforoi, and finally the animals themselves.[8]

The two processions meet at the east wall, with the women celebrants making their appearance while carrying jugs, incense burners, and wine jars. One of the women has been handed kanoun, making her a kanephoros, an honorable unmarried woman who is allowed to lead the procession. Continuing on, from both the south and the north, are 10 figures generally agreed to be the ten eponymous heroes. According to Greek mythology, they gave their names to the 10 Attic tribes. Yet, there is also a second interpretation. Given the numerous missing pieces, it could be that there are only 9, and they could represent the archons of Athens. In the middle of the east frieze are the 12 Olympian gods, depicted much larger than all the other people at the procession. In the middle of the depiction of the gods comes the most important scene, the presentation of the peplos, a gift from the Athenians to their patron goddess. The peplos is held by the priest and a little boy. Finally, the procession ends conveniently at the middle.[9]

Created in the Ionic order despite being on a plain Doric building, which was not altogether rare, the frieze also had a few other significant stylistic qualities to note. It is designed in the High Classic Style of Attic architecture, lending it relaxed figures. This style served to explore the numerous poses and possibilities of the human body, resulting in more freedom amongst the figures in terms of poses. Additionally, attention must be paid to numerous minute anatomical differences and the drapery imagery, which was more realistic and served to highlight the body beneath. There are also variations amongst the manes of the horses, which has been of particular interest to scholars attempting to estimate the number of sculptors who worked on this frieze.[10]

Though historians generally agree that the frieze depicts the Greater Panathenaic procession (The Panathenaea was an annual festival honoring the patron goddess of Athens, Athena. Every four years, athletic competitions would be held along with the festival, making it the Greater Panathenea)[11] there are flaws with that interpretation. First, if the frieze depicts the Greater Panathenaic procession, then it would portray a contemporary event rather than a mythological one. This contrasts with the rest of the art in the Parthenon, which portrays mythological beings, especially since the Parthenon is dedicated to a goddess. After all, no other temple depicts a contemporary event involving mortals, so certain historians have attempted to place it in a mythical setting. If it is accepted that mortals are portrayed with gods in the frieze, then it would be an enormous mystery as to why Phidias decided to do so. Perhaps, it is to show that both the natural world and the divine world are worthy of immortality through the arts. Whatever the case may be, it is certainly very unconventional and significant. Another problem with the Greater Panathenaic procession interpretation is the absence of many individuals who, according to later sources, are supposed to appear in the procession. This includes the hoplites, allies of the Delian League, umbrella bearers, slaves, metics, and the famous Panathenaic ship.[12]

There have been numerous theories posited to rectify the flaws of the Panathenaic procession interpretation. The historian Sir John Boardman suggested that the cavalry portrays the heroization of the hoplites who fell at Marathon. As support, he pointed out that the number of horsemen, chariot passengers, grooms, and marshals come out to 192, the same number Herodotos gives for the Athenians who died at Marathon. The frieze, according to Board, would depict a pre-war procession. Another theory, this one put forth by the historian Chrysoula Kardara, is that it shows the first Panathenaic procession under the mythical King Cecrops. This would certainly explain the absence of the ship as well as allies, since these were later additions to the procession. Of course, there are also those who reject the Panathenaic procession interpretation altogether and suggest that it portrays the mythical founding of Athens.[13]

Designed by Phidias as one of most important pieces of the Parthenon, the frieze has raised many questions and interpretations. It is still a mystery to modern historians as to why it depicts mortals along with gods and why many individuals who took part in the Panathenaic processions are not depicted. Although the meaning of the frieze is somewhat ambiguous, there is no doubt that it had a great effect in art. References to the frieze, and sometimes direct imitation, can be found in vase paintings. One vase painting, for instance, depicts a youth parking a horse in the exact manner that is shown in the frieze. Some of the most famous sculptors of Athens even went on to include many elements of the frieze in their own work.[14] Although it is heavily damaged with many pieces missing, in terms of importance and significance, the frieze has certainly passed the test of time.

Works Cited

Holloway, Ross. “The Archaic Acropolis and the Parthenon Frieze.” The Art Bulletin 48 (1966): 223-26.

Kroll, John H. “The Parthenon Frieze as a Votive Relief.” American Journal of Archaeology 8 (1979): 349-52.

Neils, Jenifer, ed. The Parthenon : From Antiquity to the Present. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005.

Neils, Jenifer. The Parthenon Frieze. New York: Cambridge UP, 2006.

Stillwell, Richard. “The Panathenaic Frieze.” Hesperia 38 (1969): 231-41.

[1] Jennifer Neils, The Parthenon Frieze (New York: Cambridge UP, 2006) 26.

[2] Jennifer Neils, ed., The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present (New York: Cambridge UP, 2005) 9-13.

[3] The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present 13-15.

[4] The Parthenon Frieze 33.

[5] The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present 49.

[6] The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present 49-50.

[7] Richard Stillwell, “The Panathenaic Frieze,” Hesperia 1969: 235.

[8] Ross Holloway, “The Archaic Acropolis and the Parthenon Frieze,” The Art Bulletin, 1966: 223-225.

[9] Holloway 225-226.

[10] The Panathenon Frieze 45.

[11] The Parthenon: From Antiquity to Present 27.

[12] John H. Kroll, “The Parthenon Frieze as a Votive Relief,” American Journal of Archeology 1979: 350.

[13] Kroll 351-352.

[14] The Parthenon Frieze 113.