The Jomon period in Japan ended sometime BC; its name derives from the ornaments used on their pottery in general and their figures as we know them and refers to the corded designs used. As to when the Jomon period started and when it ended, I prefer to keep out of the discussions going on. According to what the archaeologists, scientists, and fantasts want to prove, you find any starting date after 14,000 BC, and its ending is placed somewhere shortly before BC. Unhappily, history is used for political purposes worldwide, in this case in an ongoing dispute between Japan and Korea, and therefore whatever you get served as historical truth usually isn’t.

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Erich von Däniken, first alien ambassador and pope of the ufologists, dates the period to one century, the 6th century BC, to coincide in time with a fanciful biblical story of the same time. Others find parallels in the Ecuadorian Valdivia culture to prop their ideas of alien visitors, as there are certain pictorial parallels to the art styles. I for my part would be surprised if in a time span of 14,000 years nobody would come up with some of the same ideas.

Apart from the fantasts, science doesn’t come up with any conclusive ideas either. The proposals range from gods and goddesses being depicted, as well shamanistic spirit representations, funeral gifts, effigies for the spirits of dead ancestors, or even children toys. The sheer fancy of the figurines are baffling. Apart from being painted, they sometimes sport goggles, or have heart shaped faces, and sometimes they seem to wear astronauts’ outfits or nuclear protective gear.

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The figures were made from clay and burned in open fire pits. The larger ones of them were hollow to cut down on their weight. They come in a variety of styles, some with applications, some painted, some lacquered. An exhibition in the British Museum exploring the development of dogu over time runs from September 10th to November 22nd 2009. The exhibits are on loan from a diversity of Japanese museums and private collections and represent the top of dogu art.

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It being anyone’s guess to what purpose the figures were made, I suppose I might add mine just as well. Because of the mass of them found, there are currently over 18,000 known figures in the world, and due to the fact that almost all of them are broken, I guess they are merchandising ware in connection with the longest fantasy serial ever; probably they were supplied by Dogu Cola or McDogu, take your pick.

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‘Quality is potentially available to everyone and does not need to be expensive . . . No longer must the isolated individual work continue to occupy pride of place but rather the creation of the generally valid Type.’

This idea is the exact opposite of the Art Deco designer Ruhlmann’s call for design for the elite.  Modernism and Modernists were for Progress. Modernists aimed to be popular, communal and egalitarian.  But Modernism can also be seen as a threat to local identity as seen in Le Corbusier’s development at Chandigarh in India, and in general it had no place for nature. Modernists had a linear scientific approach to design. Modernist design can be generally characterised by:

1. Uncompromisingly ‘modern’ forms, unlike anything that had been seen before.
2. Use of new materials.
3. New ways of thinking about structure, construction and production.

Books on Modernism spread the ‘Designer as Hero’ myth.  Pevsner’s Pioneers of the Modern Movement (1936) started this gospel of Modernism by trying to prove that it was the only legitimate style of the 20th century. Modernist texts can be seen as propaganda for Fordist standardisation. Le Corbusier said ‘A great epoch has begun . . . There exists a new spirit.’  Engineers were the heroes of the Modernists and the Modernist vocabulary resounds with echoes from ship and car design.

Separation

One conceptual model in Modernist architecture and design is connected to separation.  Elements were separated out according to function. Modernist architecture separates support from enclosure; roof from wall e.g. Reitveldt’s Schröeder House.  Such sorting out (particularly in town planning schemes) sacrificed the ambiguity, multiplicity and richness of natural development. Modernist architecture encouraged separation and specialisation of elements for efficiency, but a thing made for only one purpose can suppress individuality e.g. Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye. Standardisation, anonymity and repetition can be seen in the great American skyscrapers – temples of corporate America – by Mies van der Rohe. 

Furniture

Early experiments in furniture design were in wood but when the Bauhaus moved to Dessau in 1925 the ‘Carpentry’ Department became ‘Furniture,’ with a wider range of materials and techniques and with an engineering aesthetic.  Key figures were Breuer and Mies van der Rohe. The machine aesthetic was used, with an emphasis on line, plane and transparent structure rather than mass. But if we compare two icons of Modernism, Breuer’s Wassily Chair (1925) was a real point of departure, using machine folded tubular steel and suitable for limited mass production. 

In comparison, Mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona Chair is a one-off – not suitable for mass production because he had not solved the problem of joining two plates of metal. It may look boldly ‘modern’ with its metal and leather, but it involves many different construction processes and in particular a notoriously difficult joint at the cross of the leg sections, making it impossible to mass produce in its original state. Moreover it was made for a one-off occasion, the visit of the King and Queen of Spain to Mies van der Rohe’s Spanish Pavilion.  It was not intended for the masses.  The ’standardised’ catches Le Corbusier used on his pavilion L’Esprit Nouveau at the 1925 Paris Exhibition look like car or aeroplane handles, but were individually made.  The chairs by Le Corbusier and Charlotte Perriand were also on-offs to broadcast a design message e.g. Le Grand Comfort Cube has 18 welds and three different materials. Like Haute Couture dresses these designs were not mass produced, cheap or functional.  They embody a machine aesthetic but involved craftsmanship and expensive materials.  They are Modernist myths.

The imagery of Modernist furniture and product design is the imagery of technology, from car styling and ships. The USA entered wholeheartedly into the spirit of Modernism. The commercial value of this modern machine imagery was enormous. Electrical products adopted the same progressive imagery found in aeroplanes and cars. Chrome trims and other details produced images of cleanliness, hygiene, health and progress.  In the USA Streamlining and related motifs were seen as modern and healthy by the public, and were relatively easy for designers to imitate. Streamlining added style i.e. added value to form.  It disguised the complexity of technology and distinguished the product in market place.  Raymond Loewy was one of the first true industrial designers.  He designed cars, trains and electrical goods e.g. the Coldspot refrigerator for Sears.  Consumerism and capitalism consumed Modernism and its Utopian populist vision seemed lost; and yet mass production has improved the standard of living in the west, so perhaps we can argue that the early utopianism of the Modernist designers is not entirely dissipated today. 

In general Britain ignored Modernism, but Frank Pick’s scheme for London Underground is the work of a Modernist who believed that design could change life and bring it to a higher spiritual plane. It represents Modernist design at its best and shows that the Modernist notion of universal, even eternal solutions to design problems is not entirely mistaken. Where Modernism failed was at the point where such solutions became canonical rules never to be broken.  Modernist design denied our need for variety and individuality.

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The outlines of the drawings were made using charcoal from the fires that burned in every encampment.

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Archaeologists have also found dishes in some of these caves which appear to have been used as mixing palettes. Liquid colouring, or pigment, was mixed with fat to make it stick and the resulting ‘paint’ was smeared on the walls with the hands. 

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Some examples of more advanced artwork have been found in the Altamira Cave near the town of Santilla Del Mar, in Spain and in Lascaux in France. Both caves show subtle shades and tones in the colouring of animals and this is thought to have been made using fur to apply the paint.  It also looks as though feathers and sticks have been used to get the effect of manes and tails on animals.

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The Altamira Cave was discovered purely by accident, by a Spanish hunter, named Modesto Cubillas and in 1985 it was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO. The cave itself has a number of chambers but the main one, artistically speaking, is about 17 metres by 8 metres in size. The main paintings are on the ceiling and they show bison, horses, deer, two boars and various hand prints, in ochre, red and black. The colours are limited by the pigment available from the earth around the cave area.

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At Lascaux there are a number of the caves and the cave paintings were discovered in 1940 by four teenagers. The site was originally open to the public but the carbon dioxide created by more that 1000 visitors per day started to damage the paintings, so it was closed in 1963.  The paintings were then restored. Replicas have now been made which enable visitors to see what the paintings would have looked like, but this could never be the same as seeing the originals. Visitors can view copies of the Great Hall of Bulls where 36 bulls including 4 black ones decorate the cave walls.

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Experts say that the pigments in these limestone caves may have been preserved by the damp atmosphere. Rainwater seeping in through the rock has kept the ‘canvas’ moist, so the pigments have not dried out, turned to dust and fallen off.

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The ancient artists also made prints and stencils of hands. The detail in some of the artwork is amazing. There are women, warriors, bison, deer and other animals plus scenes of hunting, battle and ritual ceremonies. These amazing cave paintings provide a detailed record of life from as far back as 20,000 BC.

(Raphaelesque Head Exploding, 1951)

In the bizarre world of Salvador Dali, anything is possible. Dali is perhaps one of the most widely known Surrealist painters of the 20th century. Although many Surrealist members originally hailed him as a talented genius and the ‘poster boy’ for Surrealism, he was later shunned as being too eccentric and self-absorbed.

(One Second Before Awakening from a Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee Around a Pomegranate, 1944)

He was known for his outrageousness and outbursts for attention. Once when doing a window dressing for a store on New York’s Fifth Avenue, he threw a tantrum when a store employee rearranged his display of a bathtub and mannequin. Dali ended up crashing through a window with the bathtub in tow. He also used to lecture in a diving suit, perplexing many who listened to him.

(The Cosmic Athlete, 1968)

While he was certainly an odd individual, no one can dispute his genius. Showing that he was a prodigy at an early age, Dali produced his first oil at the age of 8. At the age of 21, he had his first exhibition.

(Metamorphosis of Narcissus, 1937)

Despite the fact that he was enrolled in prestigious schools for his many artistic talents, he often found himself expelled. He found that teachers were unworthy of his creative achievements.

(Persistence of Memory, 1931)

His painting style is reminiscent of a fantastic world of imagination that takes on a life of its own. Melting clocks, overt sexuality, and ethereal images show a type of sophistication that is almost borderline hallucinatory.

(Hallucinogenic Toreador, 1969-1970)

It would become a style of painting known as his paranoiac method. He would also paint double images that played on the perception of the viewer, almost as if to confuse while delighting the senses.

(Swans Reflecting Elephants, 1937)

While he was a controversial painter in his time, he is perhaps one of the most famous artists of the 20th century, becoming a favorite to many. His pieces are not only sublime, but a sight to behold.

George Washington and his brother-in-arms, the French engineer Pierre Charles Lenfant (who gave the plan of Washington) made their decision about the location of the new residence and James Hoban was chosen as an architect. Washington judged it too small however and Hoban expanded the house adding a reception hall, the present East Room, inspired by Mount Vernon. A portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart (1797) can be seen in this room used for press conferences, entertainments and ceremonies. The first President of the United States never occupied the house, he died one year earlier.

The works were performed between October 1792 and November 1800 by slaves, Scottish and Italian emmigrants in the neo-Palladian Style (currently known as Georgian Style in English-speaking countries). The first President to live in the White House was John Adams. It was very much damaged in 1812 as the British tried to recuperate their colonies.

When Thomas Jefferson became President, Benjamin Latrobe expanded the building. The South façade with the semicircular portico was erected in 1829. It was inspired by the French Château de Rastignac in Dordogne (See: “The True White House: A Controversy”).

The White House: the South portico inspired by the Château de Rastignac (France).

The Mansion was constantly improved and renovated. Under President Harry S. Truman, the rooms were dismantled and reorganized whilst a new steel framework was constructed. The White House counts 6 floors and a basement.

The First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy gave a new birth to the Executive Residence by redecorating with high quality furniture forgotten in the basements. Each room features a different style corresponding to the beginning of the Republic: – the Federal Style was used for the Green Room – the French Empire Style for the Blue Room – the American Empire Style for the Red Room – the Louis XVI Style for the Yellow Oval Room and the Victorian Style for the Treaty room.

The White House can be visited. 4500 tickets are delivered a day. You will see 15 rooms out of the 132, and the discovery will last only 20 minutes. The Oval Office, traditionally used by the President, with the famous Resolute Desk, is redecorated each time a new President is elected.

The White House: the Green Room (Federal Style).

The White House: The Blue Room (French Empire Style).

The White House: the Red Room (American Empire Style).

The White House: The Yellow Oval Room (Louis XVI Style).

The White House: The Oval Office with the Resolute Desk (made in the wood from the British HMS Resolute) is in the West Wing.

In Raphael’s work of the Italian Renaissance, every element used to describe naturalism is employed to create a realistic, sometimes illusionary, composition.  In The School of Athens of 1509-1511, for example, we can see a perfect example of the use of one-point linear perspective, creating the illusion that the wall on which the fresco is painted is not simply for decoration, but to extend the confines of the limited space.  Raphael applies chiaroscuro to his figures to create even more space within his painting.  Raphael also creates his own version of naturalism by personalizing individuals through their appearance as well as their personalities and actions, allowing a viewer to instantly recognize important figures in history, such as Plato, with his gray beard, book, and upward gesture, or Aristotle, with his full head of hair, book, and gesture to the earth around him.  Raphael’s ability to distinguish characters, especially in The School of Athens, is a trait not often seen in paintings of the Middle Ages.  Raphael admired antiquity, and his figures are reminiscent of the forms of classical Greek and Roman art.  Formal idealization is combined with individual character to represent the personal achievement of his figures in their prime.  During the Renaissance, paintings that accurately represent the world are seen not only as factual accounts, but as an art comparable to God’s creation of the earth and everything in it. 

In northern Europe during the Renaissance, artists began to mimic the light and color of the world around them on a two-dimensional surface.  The work of Jan van Eyck, his Arnolfini Double Portrait, in particular, accurately represents the definition of realism during the Northern Renaissance.  As previously mentioned, the ability to capture light and color as the eye sees it contributed to the northern European idea of naturalism.  Texture and illusion also characterizes northern European art.  Artists in the Northern Renaissance, Jan van Eyck, especially, are most interested in details and specifics.  Every reflection, hair, drapery fold, and smallest detail is captured to create the ultimate depiction of a real world event.  Van Eyck creates illusion with his decision to include a convex mirror within the Arnolfini Double Portrait.  By using the unique oil-glazing technique developed in the Northern Renaissance, a viewer is able to look through the painting like he or she would look through a window.  Reflected surfaces are enhanced and stimulate the viewer’s eye.  Linear perspective is also employed to create space within the picture plane.  In Jan van Eyck’s Virgin in a Church, an illusionist space is created as the aisle of the church recedes into the background.  The double-vaulted ceiling and ornate doorways are based on one-point linear perspective, all while retaining their ornate detail.  Northern Europe also saw a slight difference between its’ Italian counterpart; the Northern Renaissance was interested in grisaille, the use of different shades of gray to make painted figures look like sculpture.  Painters of the era actively competed with sculptors who created physical works that could be touched and seen from many different angles.  Sculpture is the closest to reality art had ever gotten, and the northern European artists strove to equally represent that realistic standard.        

During the Baroque era, naturalism takes on a slightly different meaning.  Figures no longer represent the idealized classical forms found in Greek and Roman art; instead figures are shown with all their flaws, quirks, and physical abnormalities.  Rembrandt is a prime example of a Baroque artist capable of portraying any moment in a figure’s life realistically and truthfully.  Rembrandt, who had a certain fascination with the old and blind, often drew inspiration from characteristics that are far from ideal.  In his Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph of 1656, Rembrandt portrays the aging face of the fragile Jacob and his unstable, outstretched arm above his grandson’s head.  Rembrandt is also able to portray the unseeing quality of Jacob with his blank, but introspective, gaze.  While Raphael is able to capture the character and personality of his figures through their actions, Rembrandt strives to represent his figures through their emotions.  Tenebrism takes chiaroscuro one step further by creating an even wider range between light and dark values.  This allows the emotion of his figures to come through even more, creating emotions within the viewer.  In his Self-Portrait as a Young Man of 1629, Rembrandt explores how to represent the specific emotion of excitement.  The viewer can sense the excitement, and the painting becomes “real” to them, like a moment from his or her life.  Through representing figures truthfully at all stages in life, as well as applying certain emotions, Rembrandt humanizes his figures in a way not seen in Renaissance painting.

Though it was the goal of most artists during the Renaissance and Baroque periods to make their work more naturalistic, some chose to work against this tendency to depict the real world.  Sandro Botticelli is an example of a Renaissance artist ignoring the strategies of realism.  In Botticelli’s Primavera, the figures that are archetypal and idealized, without any characterizing features.  They are clearly personifications of certain seasonal developments, not actual human forms.  For example, the blue, highly unnatural Zephyrus embraces the spring nymph, Chloris, in a symbolic act.  Botticelli shows no interest in creating a deep space for his figures.  In fact, he diminishes the space further than necessary by placing a grove of trees directly behind the figures, horizontally aligning them and thus creating a shallow space.  Botticelli is clearly more interested in the symbolism of his figures and the story they tell than the realistic depiction of the figures and their environment.  Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus also depicts certain unnatural characteristics.  The figures are once again placed on the same plane, creating a shallow view.  Venus is carried ashore by an extremely oversized scallop shell, of which she balances precariously on.  The waves, beginning at the horizon line, move forward in a steady pattern, their size remaining the same as they drift into shore. 

Artists throughout the Renaissance and Baroque have had differing opinions on the use of naturalism in their paintings.  For some, it was an act of recording facts and documents, as in van Eyck’s Arnolfini Double Portrait.  For others, it was about recreating nature like God during the initial creation of the earth.  And still for others, realism was of little importance.  Priorities, instead, were symbolic, as in the works of Botticelli. 

French governments in the nineteenth century consisted of either a single ruler or a small ruling class, and suppressing dissension of citizens was a perilous task.  Only a small, wealthy section of the population made up the influential group of citizens within the July Monarchy, resulting in a general disregard for the impoverished majority.  The vastly outnumbered authorities developed several methods of controlling the general population, of which their greatest invention was censorship of political caricature.  Caricature overcame the illiteracy of the lower classes, enabling even the lowest levels of society to become involved in political and social matters.  Caricature became widely accessible to all levels of society, and the government feared an uprising of the class who suffered the most from government actions:  the uneducated, disadvantaged laborers.    

The Fitz-James amendment of 1820, proposed during The Restoration, put further restrictions on the distribution of caricatures.  It stated that no printed drawing may be published, displayed or sold without prior authorization from the government (105).  The proposal allowed the government to control all graphic depictions, not just political caricatures.  Complaints against the amendment claimed the government had grossly exaggerated the impact of harmless drawings and had broadened its authority to the point where there was no longer a limit on their actions.  The bill of 1820 contributed to almost sixty years of censorship.   

Caricaturists, however, did not allow themselves to be silenced so easily.  After 1815, lithography was the most prevalent method of creating prints of all kinds, including political caricature.  Compared to the traditional techniques of engraving, lithography created thousands of prints from a single drawing.  It was also easier to use and cheaper to publish.  Viewed as highly threatening by the government, lithography could more effectively produce and circulate seditious images.  This gave the authorities reason to return to oppressive press laws, this time in the form of the September Laws of 1835.  Under the law, the variety of press crimes were expanded, penalties and security deposits were increased, and censorship of caricature was reintroduced.

Government paranoia continued to increase as new techniques for quelling dissent in political caricatures were created.  During the Second Republic, a personal authorization rule was added requiring caricaturists to obtain permission from the subjects of their drawings.  The rule made the process incredibly time-consuming, making it nearly impossible for caricaturists to publish current events.  The effect was that journals did not have the money to cover the expenses imposed by the rule, and it limited caricaturists’ subjects to those of the past.  In the Second Empire under Napoleon III, the emperor’s fear of dissenting imagery was so great he created censorship bans that affected not only caricaturists and the press, but also well-known, traditional artists, such as Gustave Courbet and Edouard Manet.  In 1877, during the “Monarchist Republic,” the authorities expanded their discretion even further.  The censors rejected drawings based on criteria that created a direct threat to the regime, as well as prints that did not explicitly depict seditious imagery.  Government paranoia had increased to the point where censors expected drawings to contain rebellious elements and images; when they could not find the allusions, they suspected caricaturists of concealing their true intentions. 

The oppressive and irrational reactions to political caricature indicate the unstable political climate in France during the nineteenth century.  While the government’s fear of oppositional political caricatures led to a struggle to control satirical imagery, censorship liberalized when the political climate was stable.  It was difficult to predict, however, what would be tolerated at any given time.  Caricaturists frequently complained that censors were completely arbitrary, often basing their decisions on the bias of the regime in power at that time.  In addition, they often refused to give any explanation for disallowing a drawing.

It seemed that history was doomed to repeat itself with the overturning of every government in France between 1789 and 1881.  A short period of “liberty” to gain the favor of the citizens was followed soon after by repression in the form of censorship and press laws.  In 1852, two months after President Bonaparte overthrew the constitutional regime, censorship of images was reinstated, taken almost word-for-word from the September Laws from seventeen years earlier.

With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, political caricature was free from repression.  The new government neglected to continue the previous restrictions of the Empire, resulting in an explosion of individually distributed cartoons.  The complete abolition of censorship, however, was not possible during a highly contentious period.  Only when political conditions were right did censorship lose its power.  First, both left- and right-wing caricaturists agreed in their dislike of the government’s ability to suppress their views.  Second, the new republican government became increasingly more stable, resulting in the reduction of controversial subjects.  The republicans in power gradually realized the need for freedom of expression in society and increasingly allowed caricature to be free from oppressive constraints.

As the degree of censorship shifted, so did the themes of caricature.  For example, between 1815 and 1820, political caricature flourished until censorship tightened in 1822.  Caricature shifted to social themes, concentrating mainly on current fashions or fads.  Political caricature, though in no way eradicated, was almost impossible to publish since it was seen as posing a direct threat to the regime.  In 1838, during the July Monarchy, Charles Philipon created a new caricature journal under the name of La Caricature Provisoire with the intention to publish non-political images.  Philipon strove to communicate his ideas through the satirizing of non-political subjects, focusing instead on “moral, literary, theatrical, artistic, industrial…[and other]” themes (165).

However, caricaturists often developed more combative techniques to spread their ideas while avoiding censorship.  A common, method of denouncing the government was by replacing a page in a journal where a forbidden caricature was to appear with a blank page, often with a protestation against the government’s action and a written description of the rejected image.  Another method used to protest censorship was by publishing drawings corrected by the censors in their obviously mutilated form.  Sometimes artists would erase or obscure parts of a drawing in a noticeable fashion so that the image still communicated their intention while avoiding prosecution.  For example, in 1872, L’Eclipse published an image by Andre Gill depicting President Thiers delivering a baby symbolizing money owed to Prussia after the French defeat in 1870.  At the bottom, three Royalists disappear behind a thick blanket of clouds, as well as an eagle representing Napoleon III.  Members of the public who were familiar with Gill’s position as a republican and the effect the payment to Prussia had on the Royalists could most likely figure out the identity of the clouded figures (54-55).

To avoid the personal authorization rule, journals often published caricatures with faces or heads missing.  Other clues within the image, however, often gave away the identity of the subject.  In La Lune Rousse, Andre Gill published a drawing of journalist Louis Veuillot with the face of a popular actress, Anna Judic, who did not have a highly respectable reputation (56).  In this way, the caricature was given more meaning, creating symbolism more damaging than if Veuillot himself had been depicted.  Another method artists use to avoid the personal authorization rule was to redraw a rejected depiction of a subject in a respectable fashion, gain his approval, then publish the original, claiming the written approval applied to the first drawing. 

Other methods of avoiding censorship included the use of pictorial allusions.  To avoid confrontation with the censors, caricaturists hid political commentary behind recognizable symbols.  In an 1875 publication of Le Don Quichotte, a candlesnuffer douses the flame of a candle atop a book labeled Education, symbolizing the stifling of enlightenment.  The use of animals as representations for political figures was another popular method of getting around censorship.  Animals were used to depict the potential subjects of caricatures in an 1880 publication of La Jeune Garde.  To protest the personal authorization rule, animals in the zoo are seen behind a fence with a label that reads, “It is forbidden to throw stones at the animals – without their permission” (59-60).   

In 1880, with the end of censorship in sight, a tremendous amount of new caricature journals sprang up.  The focus was on more trivial subjects, however, such as social life, fashion, and eroticism.  As fewer journals focused on political matters, the significance and power they previously enjoyed no longer existed.  Artistic quality declined, and journals became suggestive of pornography.  The reason for the decline in the quality and significance of caricature journals was also the goal caricaturists had struggled to achieve:  stability within the new republican regime.  The struggle against the constant threat posed by the authorities brought out the creativity, interest, and edge in caricature journals.  The fervor over struggles with previous governments was conspicuously absent within the republican rule. Without a fight, public interest declined, subjects of caricature were scarce, and artists grew lazy in creating images.  Political control was no longer dominated by a single ruler, but by a collective group of politicians.  This limited caricaturists’ ability to effectively mock those in power.

Between 1789 and 1880, caricature in France dealt with multiple cycles of repression and liberalization.  The power found in political images resulted in excessive measures to quell it.  Governments exposed their distrust and fear of the citizens they tried so desperately to control by instating censorship and punishing those who violated it.  Censorship was not, however, a constant force on caricature journals and the people of France; during periods of relative stability, the laws were liberalized and allowed for a moderate amount of free expression.  During contentious periods, caricature was restricted to social themes since political caricature was almost impossible to publish.  These repressive measures, however, did not stop caricaturists from expressing their views.  Artists and journals used a variety of creative techniques to combat the government’s oppressive forces.  The struggle for liberty through political caricature was a long, but ultimately successful one.  Freedom of expression exists today through freedom of the press as a result of caricaturists’ efforts to preserve their rights.

In order to fully appreciate the scale of William Morris’s contribution to the Arts and Craft Movement, we must first understand how it was born. The Industrial revolution had ushered in many great changes and advancements in Britain during Queen Victoria’s reign. For the production of furniture however, lesser developed machinery which could churn out large numbers of cupboards, tables and chairs etc, was having a terribly detrimental effect on quality and craftsmanship. The repetitive nature of working with these machines and the increased demand due the rising number of middle class consumers, meant so called craftsmen could take little pride in their work.

Furniture was being made quickly to sell cheaply. Veneering (i.e. the practice of encasing poor-quality materials with a thin layer of quality wood) became so wide spread and common place that it was used as a literary devise by writers of the time such as Charles Dickens and Wilkie Collins to describe a sham or untruth. It was this dire situation that first led Pugin to publish his feelings on how society was faltering. He made “connotations between the products of a nation and its spiritual life” (Caruthers and Greensted, 1994). To him art and life were fully entwined and architecture reflected community life. Ruskin meanwhile attempted to answer why the art of the nineteenth century did not hold up to that of the middle Ages. He believed that the pressure of current environment had led to a loss in freedom of expression, work therefore was no longer a pleasure and this was evident in the decline in standards. The social divide between intellectual and practical workers was also criticised by Ruskin and suggested that an architect should be “fully conversant with all the skills and materials of the trade” (Carruthers and Greensted, 1994).

These views formed William Morris’s basis for his own movement which was a reaction to the perceived vulgarity of new age of commercialism. Morris regarded the home as a “spiritual haven from the corruptness of the outside world” and as such, a large percentage of his body of work consists of everyday items such as chairs and tables “furniture for good citizens” according to Morris. Function was always his first consideration and decoration only used when appropriate. A handcrafted look was favoured leaving some work to appear almost unfinished. Workmanship was key, and the influence of much older work and nature was prevalent. Designs were sympathetic to the type of medium used. This became known as “truth to materials”. Good examples of this are evident in the work of Ernest Gimson- a follower of the principles of Morris. The stems of his floral designs are frequently carried out in silver, the curved, flowing line showed off the nature of the metal.

A close inspection of Morris’s work clearly illustrates the size of his contribution to what is now considered the “Arts and Crafts style”. The interior of Red House (the home he and architect Philip Webb designed and built for Morris and his new bride Jane Burden) is a monument to the style of the “movement”. The house is filled with understated, solid yet elegant built in furniture, echoing Morris’s insistence that furniture be “made of timber rather than walking sticks”. Whilst entirely functional as “necessary work-a-day furniture” and reflective of the strong wood all the pieces are made of, beauty and balance is created through the elaborate carving, inlaying and painting of the furniture. And though there are certainly no needles extravagances, detailing such as the floral metal handles, soften the very sturdy and masculine look of the house.

Similarly the beautifully detailed flowered wallpaper and embroideries which decorate the walls, add a touch of nature inspired beauty- such a prevalent aspect of the arts and craft ethos. The ceiling in the hallway also displays a trait which would become a classic pointer to the style. Though instinctively geometric in shape and structural in design which exposed timber beams, the ceiling is painted with a repeated design that is both “medieval and modern in its use of simple motifs” (Wilson, 1996).

Certainly, visually Red House was model of Arts and Craft craftsmanship, it is however level of involvement in all areas of the design by Morris that makes the building such an important early blueprint for the evolving movement. His mastery of what he considered “the blossoms of the art of furniture making” and design, i.e. decorative woodcarving, the ironwork necessary for the detailing, the needlework involved in the tapestries and embroidery, the artistic quality of his ceramic and wallpaper patterns etc, were what was to be expected of designers and craftsmen. Earlier furniture makers such as Josiah Wedgwood, despite their best intentions to improve the standards of quality, would “harness the talents of artists to improve industrial production” (Carruthers and Greensted, 1994). Morris however was not satisfied with this, he felt “the schism between fine arts and the applied arts, or rather between the practitioners, should be healed, so that all might advance together towards a grand Renaissance” (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952).

As Morris’s and influence grew through his Oxford St premises in London, his style evolved. The Green Dining room at South Kensington Museum contains all the hallmarks of the Arts and Craft movement, with its “repeating patterns of stylised floral decoration intended to complement rather than compete with the existing tapestry” (Wilson. 1996) – because Morris hated the idea of “monstrosities and extravagances”. Typically, the shades of blue and green were an attempt to create a restful effect as he was mindful of the “domestic purpose of the room”. The panelling is uncluttered, relying on quality carving to give it detail. The big advancement obvious in this particular room is Morris’s increases use of colour. Wood is no longer simply a varnished dark brown but instead painted in colours reflecting nature. Furniture is embossed with rich gold patterns of leaves and berries- features that would be put to use by designers such as C.R. Ashbee and other figures involved in the newly formed Arts and Craft Guild.

Always politically aware, Morris realised that in order to “revive a sense of beauty in home life, to restore the dignity of art to ordinary household decoration” he had to attempt to provide inexpensive ideas for the furnishings of the “workman’s home”. From was born one of his most recognizable pieces of furniture. The now iconic chair from Morris’s Sussex range, perfectly encapsulates the Arts and Craft Movement. Rustic and elegant, the chair remains entirely true to its natural materials whilst getting the most out of them- the seat is merely woven rush whilst the frame is composed of delicately carved timber and yet the chair is entirely solid. Morris has shown no temptation for over-ornamentation, relying solely on the quality of the craftsmanship to give it its simple beauty. Of equal importance, the chair was cheap to produce and could therefore be sold for very little and was suitable for everyday use, making true Morris’s promise to make “good citizens furniture” and reintroduce art to the common man.

Though certainly not the only designer and artist worthy of note during Arts and Craft movement, Morris was set apart by his awareness of the fact that he had to use his position of considerable wealth and respect to educate others in the ethos of the movement. He, unlike most figures of note, did not merely influence his and future generations by leaving behind a catalogue of work- his character simply would not allow it. He would actively attempt to break down the division between the artist and technician (which would later become an adopted goal of the Arts and Craft Movement). He would give lectures to the young designers of time, explaining the importance of pragmatism and practicality in design as well as a hands-on approach.

He would write papers (e.g. In A Factory As It Should Be, Signs of Change) exalting the virtues of handcrafts and how it could help restore appreciation of the arts amongst the community as well as good Christian values. Successful designers to come out of this time such as Gimson, Barnsley, A. R. Green and Eric Sharpe all displayed evidence of influence by Morris with styles celebrating woodworking crafts. Societies like The Art Workers Guild, The Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, Home Arts, Cottage Arts Society and Village Society began to spring up and all would echo his teachings. His may not have been the original voice (Pugin and Ruskin had come before) but it was certainly the loudest. Not content even with this, Morris approached the Royal Academy “with a view to extending its orbit to encompass the minor arts” (Routledge and Kegan, 1952), his idea was to exhibit work craftsmen in wood metal and glass next that of painters and sculptors.

Paradoxically, Morris, after making the Arts and Craft style so popular and widely spread, was “characterised as the epitome of English style” (Wilson, 1996) and, in winning commissions to design royal thrones, was positioned at the heart of the English establishment, whilst simultaneously claimed by many left-wing, internationalist designers as a key inspiration to the Modern Movement. The Arts and Craft Movement soon spread around the globe, and in each new country, Morris would cite as the inspiration. The view of Belgian Designer Henry Van Der Velde was typical, calling Morris a “great apostle of the new movement”.

William Morris’s contribution towards the Arts and Craft Movement is immeasurable. It is not entirely out of the question to ponder over whether or not there would indeed have even been one in his absence, such was size of his contribution. What made him such a necessary figure was not for any particular idea regarding textiles, architecture, printing or carpentry. It was his devotion and thoroughness, his mixture of an historical sense with a feeling for the contemporary, his respect for materials, and his insistence on the relation of form and function- his total impact. Whilst contemporaries such as J.D. Sedding were crying out for “a new starting point” and “designs by living men for living men” Morris had set about making this a reality.

In an age ravaged by soulless commercialism, his interiors, chintzes, carpets, wallpapers and furnishings are rightly held up as the beginning of era that would bring the humanity back into the home and reacquaint the practical with the beautiful. Though in his later years, Morris and his movement appeared to lose much of its pace- the machine age was an inevitability rather than a threat. Like all great thinkers and radicals throughout time, his theories and teaching were merely laying dormant, waiting for the world to catch up. Thirty years after his death, the world had long since celebrated the dawn of a new century that would see all life change beyond recognition, in Weider, Germany a school of art named the Bauhaus began its First Proclamation stating- “There is no essential difference between the artist and the craftsman… Let us create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist.”

No.5, 1948

Price : 149,700,000.00 US Dollars
Painter/Artist : Jackson Pollock

This is an abstract painting done by an American Painter Jackson Pollock, a popular abstract painter in America. This painting is done on 8′x 4′ fiberboard sheet. Samuel Irving Newhouse originally owned this abstract painting where it was displayed at the Museum of Modern Art. It was later sold to David Geffen and much later to David Martinez, Managing Partner of Fintech Advisory Ltd. The sale though was not confirmed as it was alleged that Martinez was not the real buyer.

The original creator of this painting, Jackson Pollock, was born in Wyoming in 1912 but grew up in Arizona and California. Pollock studied at Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles and then to New York at the Arts Student League. He died in a car accident less than a mile from his home in Springs, New York on August 11, 1956 at the age of 44.

Woman lll

Price : 147,000,000.00 US Dollars
Painter/Artist : Willem de Kooning

This painting is another original creation of an abstract painter, Willem de Kooning. It was done in 1951-1953 as part of a series of paintings in which the central theme is a woman. This painting was part of the collection of Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art. In 2006, it was sold by David Geffen to Steven A. Cohen for US$137,000.000.00, making it the second most expensive painting ever sold.

The original creator of this painting, Willem de Kooning, was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands. He was 5 years old when his parents separated leaving him under the care of his mother and step father. His early artistic Training was at the Rotterdam Academy of Fine Arts and Techniques. For a while in the 1920s, he worked at a Rotterdam Department Store as Assistant to the Art Director. He later moved to the US as stowaway on a British Freight Ship to Virginia and then to Boston and Rhode Island. Eventually he settled in New Jersey where he supported himself as a house painter. Willem de Kooning excelled in the abstract kind of paintings where a woman would serve as the subject of his works. His 1955 painting (Interchange) was sold for US$20 million in 1989, almost 10 years before he died. He finally settled in Long Island where he died in April 19, 1997 at the age of 92.

Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer l

Price : 144, 400, 000, 00 US Dollars
Painter/Artist : Gustav Klimt

This painting was done by Gustav Klimt in 1907 with Adele Bloch-Bauer as his model. A second painting of the same model was completed in 1912. Adele Bloch-Bauer was the wife of Ferdinand Bloch Bauer, a wealthy businessman from Vienna who wanted the paintings to adorn their home. The painting is made of oil and gold on a canvas and

measured 138 x 138 cm.

The original creator of this painting is Gustav Klimt was born on July 14, 1862 in Baumgarten, Austria. He studied at the Vienna School of Arts and Crafts and received training as an Architectural Painter. His works became famous for his murals and interior ceiling works in Austria and he eventually received a Golden Merit Award from the Emperor of Austria for his contribution to art. He later became an honorary member of the University of Munich and the University of Vienna. He died in Vienna on February 6, 1918 at the age of 55.

Portrait of Dr. Gachet

Price : 136,100,000.00 US Dollars
Painter/Artist : Vincent van Gogh

This painting by van Gogh used his doctor friend, Dr. Gachet as his model. Dr. Gachet is himself a Hobby Painter and is depicted in this painting leaning his head onto his arm. There are two version of this painting and both were done in 1890. Dr. Gachet took care of van Gogh during his last months.

Vincent Willem van Gogh was born in Southern Netherlands on March 1853. In 1866 he attended a middle school Willem College in Tilburg. At the school he was taught by Constantin Huysman who himself made some success in Paris to draw and advocated

a systematic approach to the subject. But Gogh abruptly left school and returned home. At age 15, his uncle recommended him to work for an art dealer in The Hague. Later his employer transferred him to London and continued his work at the London office of Goupil & Cie in Southampton. He was happy with his work and was earning more than his father.

Vincent van Gogh later became a missionary and went to Brussels to become part of the Christian mission. In 1880, he finally pursued formal education when he enrolled at the Royal Academy of Art where he learned the rules of modeling and perspectives. Owing to his early emersion in Christian life, Vincent wished to become an Artist in God’s service.

Vincent van Gogh life as a Christian and an artist was marked with complex and turbulent past. He entered a mental hospital suffering from depression and alcohol abuse. His health was failing at a time when his works started to gain prominence. At age 37, he shot himself to death but his works continued to appreciate in value for decades to come.

Bal au moulin de la Gallete, Montmartre

Painter/Artist : Pierre-Auguste Renoir
Price : 128,800,000.00 US Dollars

Bal au Moulin de la Gallete, Montmartre is a painting by Piere-Auguste Renoir, a French Artist/Painter. It was done in oil on fabric in 1876 at the Musse d’Orsey in Paris. Moulin de la Gallete is a windmill located in Montmarte in Paris, a favorite location for great artists and painters. It is now owned by Ryoei Saito of Japan. It was sold to him by the widow of John Hay Witney in 1990 for US$78 million.

Piere-Auguste Renoir was born in France in February 25, 1841. As a young boy, he worked in a porcelain factory where he made designs on fine china. In 1862, he studied art under Charles Glayre in Paris. In 1874, initial acclaim was made on some of his paintings which started the beginning of his rise to popularity in the arts circles. Renoir’s paintings are noted for their vibrant colors. He also became a popular artist using nude models. His nude paintings are popular and expensive. Renoir died in France on December 3, 1919. He was 78 years old.

Garcon a la Pipe

Painter/Artist : Pablo Picasso
Price : 118,900,000.00 US Dollars

This painting was done by Pablo Picasso in 1905 in Paris. It is done in oil on canvas and depicts a Parisian boy holding a pipe. Its last recorded owner was John Hay Whitney who bought the painting in 1950 for 30,000.00 US Dollars. In 2004, it was sold for 104 million US Dollars but its new owner was not disclosed.

Pablo Picasso was born on October 25, 1881 in Malaga, Spain. His father was also a painter/artist and a professor of arts in a University. His father sent him to the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid, a high end art school. But he quit in no time and later moved to Paris in 1900 where he met his first Persian friend, Max Jacob, a poet and journalist who help him learn the language in its literature. During the war, Picasso remained in Paris. After liberation of Paris, he met a young art student Francoise Gilot and they became lovers. They have two children, Claude and Paloma. Gilot eventually left Picasso because of abusive treatment and infidelity. This has devastated Picasso but afterwards he had been linked to several other women where he had other children. Picasso died in 1973 in France at the age of 91.

Irises

Artist/Painter : Vincent van Gogh
Price : 102,300,000 US Dollars

Irises is a painting by Vincent van Gogh. It was his first works while he was on asylum in France a year before he died in 1890.

Dora Maar au Chat

Artist/Painter : Pablo Picasso
Price : 101,800,000.00 US Dollars

This is a 1941 painting by Picasso. The painting depicted his Croatian mistress seated on a chair with a small cat perched on her shoulders. Picasso fell in love with Maar and their relationship lasted for 10 years.

Aphrodite de Milos (Venus De Milo)

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The statue of Aphrodite de Milos is regarded as the most beautiful model of a woman’s body. It is at present on display at the Louvre Museum in Paris. It is an ancient Greek statue and one of the most famous works of ancient Greek sculpture. It was created between 130 and 100 BC, it is believed to depict Aphrodite (called Venus by the Romans), the Greek goddess of love and beauty. It is a marble sculpture, slightly larger than life size at 203 cm (6.7 ft) high. Its arms and original plinth have been lost. This contributed to the mystery of the sculpture. It is believed to be the work of Alexander of Antioch

Winged Victory of Samothrace

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This sculpture is also called the Nike of Samothrace. It is a third century B.C. marble sculpture of the Greek goddess Nike (Victory). Since 1884, it has been prominently displayed at the Louvre and is one of the most celebrated sculptures in the world. The work is notable for its naturalistic pose and for the rendering of the figure’s draped garments, depicted as if rippling in a strong sea breeze, which is considered especially compelling.

Laocoon and His Sons

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The statue of Laocoon and His sons is also called the Laocoon Group. It is another monumental marble sculpture housed in the Vatican Museums in Rome. The statue is attributed by the Roman author Pliny the Elder to three sculptors from the island of Rhodes: Agesander, Athenodoros and Polydoros. It shows the Trojan priest Laocoon and his sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being strangled by sea serpents.

Bronze Sculpture

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This Bronze Sculpture is thought to be either Poseidon or Zeus created about. 460 B.C. It is now housed at the National Archeological Museum in Athens. This masterpiece of classical sculpture was found by fishermen in their nets off the coast of Cape Artemisium in 1928. The figure is more than 2 m in height.

Diadumenos

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This statue is a copy of Polycitus’ Diadumenos located in National Archeological Museum in Athens. The Diadumenos which means diadem-bearer is one of the most famous figural types of Polycitus that present strictly idealized representations of young men in a convincingly naturalistic manner.

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The Diadumenos is the winner of an athletic contest at a game, still nude after the contest and lifting his arms to knot the diadem, a ribbon-band that identifies the winner and which in the bronze original of about 420 BCE would have been represented by a ribbon of bronze.

Venus Braschi

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This statue is the so-called Venus Braschi by Praxiteles, a type of the Knidian Aphrodite. It is housed in Munich Glyptothek.

The Marathon Youth

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The Marathon Youth is another work of art by Praxiteles. This bronze statue was probably created about 4th century BC. It is located at the National Archeological Museum, Athens.

Statue of Hermes

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The Statue of Hermes is created possibly by Pypsippos. It is currently housed at the National Archeological Museum in Athens.

The Charioteer of Delphi

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The Charioteer of Delphi in Delphi Archaeological Museum is one of the greatest surviving works of Greek sculpture, dating from about 470 B.C. Part of a larger group of statuary given to the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi by Polyzalos, brother of the tyrant of Syracuse, this bronze in the Early Classical style is one of the few Greek statues to retain its inlaid glass eyes.

Statue of Zeus and Ganymede

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The terracotta statue of Zeus and Ganymede, in Olympia Archeological Museum was found in Olympia and believed to be executed around 470 BC. The terracotta is painted.

Greek sculpture was focused on the human body. The above examples were manifestations that Greek sculptors have perfected human anatomy. Every detail of the body curvature was very well presented.

For more arts related articles see

The World’s Most Unique Public Art Masterpieces

10 Simply Unique Porcelain Art Pieces